Which of the following is not a cardiovascular monitoring technique -

Ans. is 'd' i.e., Capnography Capnography is a respiratory monitor system (not a cardiovascular)Capnography -It is the determination of End tidal CO2 (Et CO2) concentration to confirm adequate ventilation.It is useful during all anaesthetic procedures Principal of End tidal CO2 determination (capnography)Gases with molecules that contain at least two dissimilar atoms absorb radiation in the infrared region of the spectrum.Using this property, carbon dioxide concentration can be measured directly and continuously throughout the respiratory cycle.The gradient observed during end tidal C02 measurement in healthy individuals isEnd tidal CO2 < alveolar CO2 < arterial CO2Why is End tidal CO2 less than alveolar CO2?Because the end tidal carbon di oxide is always diluted with alveolar dead space gas from unperfumed alveoli.These alveoli do not take part in gas exchange and so contain no carbon di oxide.Why is alveolar CO2 less than arterial CO2?Because the blood from the unventilated alveoli and lung parenchyma (both have higher CO2 contents) mixes with the blood from ventilated alveoli.In healthy adults with normal lungs end tidal CO2 is .3 to .6 kPa less than arterial CO2.This difference is reduced if the lungs are ventilated with large tidal volumes.Uses of End tidal CO2 (Et COA CapnographyTo detect correct placement in tracheal intubation.Persistent detection of CO2 by a capnograph is best confirmation of tracheal placement of endotracheal tube.If the tracheal tube goes into the oesophagus no, or very little CO2 is detected.To diagnose lung embolism as a sudden decrease in end tidal carbon di oxide, assuming that the arterial blood pressure remain stable.To diagnose malignant hyperpyrexia as a gradual increase in end tidal carbon di oxide.As a disconnection alarm for a ventilator or breathing system. There is sudden absence of end tidal CO2.Also know,Cardiovascular monitoring techniques.Noninvasive methodsECG Blood pressureTransesophageal echocardiographyInvasive (1) Invasive blood pressure